Humanos vs. Virus o Humanos vs. Humanos: Una aproximación de teoría de juegos a la pandemia de COVID-19

La presencia de externalidades y de información privada son características esenciales de una pandemia como la de la COVID-19. En este paper estudiamos los costos de bienestar de un ambiente de información incompleta fomentado por estas características. Desarrollamos una estructura analítica que introduce un enfoque de teoría de juegos a un modelo Macro-SIR para analizar el rol de la información en la determinación del tamaño del trade-off entre economía y salud en una pandemia. Aplicamos el modelo a la pandemia de COVID-19 en EE.UU y encontramos que los costos de mantener privada la información de salud están entre USD 5.9 billones y USD 6.7 billones. Luego encontramos la política óptima de divulgación que, junto con Testeo y Confinamientos, pueden mejorar el bienestar. Debido a que la información privada sobre los estados de salud de los individuos genera las mayores pérdidas de bienestar en la pandemia, elaborar políticas que hagan pública esta información al máximo nivel de desagregación y precisión posible, resultaría en reducciones significativas de las muertes y un desempeño económico significativamente superior.Externalities and private information are key characteristics of an epidemic like the Covid-19 pandemic. We study the welfare costs stemming from the incomplete information environment that these characteristics foster. We develop a framework that embeds a game theory approach into a macro SIR model to analyze the role of information in determining the extent of the health-economy trade-off of a pandemic. We apply the model to the Covid-19 epidemic in the US and find that the costs of keeping health information private are between USD $5.9$ trillion and USD $6.7$ trillion. We then find an optimal policy of disclosure and divulgation that, combined with testing and containment measures, can improve welfare. Since it is private information about individuals' health what produces the greatest welfare losses, finding ways to make such information known as precisely as possible, would result in significantly fewer deaths and significantly higher economic activity.Humanos vs. Virus o Humanos vs. Humanos: Una aproximación de teoría de juegos a la pandemia de COVID-19 Enfoque Una epidemia es un choque sanitario que puede inducir a las personas a reducir sus actividades para protegerse del virus y motivar a las autoridades a implementar medidas restrictivas para reducir la velocidad de contagio. Este comportamiento de los agentes privados y públicos genera un trade-off entre economía y salud. En particular, una epidemia como la de la COVID-19 tiene como características principales la presencia de información privada y externalidades de contagio. En este contexto, las personas deben entonces tomar decisiones en un ambiente de interacción estratégica, ya que un individuo debe ahora preocuparse por el estado de salud de otros al elegir cómo actuar y qué hacer. Cuando los individuos carecen de información sobre el estado de salud de otros, el control de la epidemia es más complicado tanto para los privados como para los entes públicos. Por lo tanto, para las autoridades y los investigadores interesados, resulta axial modelar adecuadamente este ambiente estratégico para entender cómo la insuficiencia en la información que tienen las personas puede afectar el tamaño de las externalidades y la evolución de la epidemia. En este sentido, los modelos que pretendan capturar estos hechos deben tener en cuenta la presencia de infectados asintomáticos y el valor de la privacidad como una limitante a la recolección y uso de la información sobre la salud de las personas. Contribución Diseñamos un juego que modela las interacciones estratégicas de las personas en el contexto de una epidemia. A partir de este desarrollo, construimos un modelo en el que se integran las dinámicas epidemiológicas y las económicas. En este modelo incorporamos infectados asintomáticos, puesto que su existencia en la epidemia permite pensar en una dimensión adicional de la información con la que cuentan los individuos: su propio estado de salud. Con esta estructura analítica, estudiamos cómo se comportan la economía y los agregados epidemiológicos bajo distintos ambientes de información. Luego aplicamos este modelo al estallido de la COVID-19 en Estados Unidos y estudiamos las implicaciones en bienestar de cambiar el tipo y la cantidad de información a disposición de los individuos. En este caso de estudio, cerramos nuestro análisis proponiendo y evaluando herramientas de política de información que pueden mejorar el resultado global de la epidemia de COVID-19 por sí solas, así como en conjunto con medidas de contención. Resultados Encontramos que, en la epidemia de COVID-19, las mayores pérdidas de bienestar no se deben a la externalidad de infección propiamente, sino a la falta de suficiente información privada y común. Desde el brote inicial de la COVID-19 en EE. UU, los costos de mantener privada la información sobre la salud de los individuos están entre 5,9 y 6,7 Billones de dólares. Las herramientas de política más ampliamente utilizadas para el control de la epidemia, las contenciones y el testeo, generan por sí solas bajas ganancias en bienestar. Por un lado, el testeo puede ser una espada de doble filo y crear asimetrías de información, ya que sólo le permiten obtener la información sobre los resultados a la persona testeada. Por otro lado, las contenciones dependen de la información disponible para las autoridades, de modo que van a ser menos focalizadas y más estrictas entre más escasa sea esta información. Luego procedemos a medir la importancia de revelar y divulgar información desagregada sobre los estados de salud de las personas, encontrando que esta es una herramienta poderosa de política para reducir el trade-off de economía y salud de la COVID-19. Por supuesto, el desafío de esta propuesta es encontrar formas de hacer disponible información precisa y utilizable para los individuos sobre los estados de salud de los demás. FRASE DESTACADA: Las mayores pérdidas de bienestar por el COVID-19 no se deben a la externalidad de infección sino a problemas de información. Resolverlos vía divulgación de información privada resulta en una reducción dramática del trade-off entre economía y salu

Efecto de la comunicación del Banco de la República sobre la curva de rendimientos

Analizamos el efecto, sobre la curva de rendimientos, de la comunicación del Banco de la República mediante dos tipos de documentos, las minutas de las reuniones de política monetaria y los informes de política monetaria (anteriormente informes sobre inflación) durante el periodo 2011-II a 2018-IV. Extraemos información numérica de los fan charts publicados en los informes de política monetaria e información narrativa –usando Latent Dirichlet Allocation, una herramienta de lingüística computacional- tanto de las minutas como de los informes. Mediante la metodología de estudio de eventos analizamos el impacto sobre cuatro diferentes tasas: spot a un año, forward a 3 años, forward a 5 años y forward a 5 años, dentro de 5 años. No encontramos evidencia de que la información numérica tenga algún efecto sobre estas tasas. Con respecto a las variables narrativas encontramos que (i) para los informes de política, hay un efecto significativo solo sobre dos de las tasas (spot a un año y forward a 5 años) y (ii) para las minutas hay un efecto significativo sobre las cuatro tasas. Creemos que estos resultados pueden explicarse por el rezago de publicación que tenía el informe de política monetaria durante el periodo analizado.We analyze the effect on the yield curve of Banco de la Republica’s communication through two specific outlets, the minutes of the monetary policy meetings and the inflation reports during the period 2011-Q2 to 2018-Q4. We extract numeric information from the inflation reports’ fan charts, and narrative information -using Latent Dirichlet Allocation, a computational linguistics tool- from the text of both outlets. We use an event-study approach to analyze the impact on four specific maturities: one-year spot, three-year forward, five-year forward and five-year ahead five-year forward rates. We find no evidence that numeric information has any effect on market yields. Regarding narrative variables we find that (i) for the inflation report, there is a significant effect on just two yields (one-year spot and five-year forward), and (ii) for the minute, there is a significant effect on all yields. We believe that these results may be explained by the publication lag of the inflation report during the period of analysis.Efecto de la comunicación del Banco de la República sobre la curva de rendimientos Enfoque El documento analiza el efecto de la comunicación del Banco de la República (BR) sobre las tasas de interés de mercado a diferentes plazos. En particular, se estudian dos tipos de documentos publicados por el BR: las Minutas de las reuniones de política monetaria de la Junta Directiva y los Informes de Política Monetaria (anteriormente Informes sobre Inflación). Se analizan dos tipos de información: numérica y narrativa. Esta última se extrae usando Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), una herramienta de análisis de texto mediante la cual se identifican los principales temas tratados en los documentos, su importancia y los cambios de la misma para cada tema a través del tiempo. El análisis del efecto de la comunicación se hace mediante el método estadístico de estudio de eventos, el cual supone que los cambios que se observan en las tasas de interés, el día que se publica una minuta o un informe de política, reflejan la reacción del mercado a la entrega de la información contenida en esos documentos. Contribución Aunque algunos trabajos previos han estudiado el efecto de la comunicación del BR sobre las tasas de interés, este documento es, en nuestro conocimiento, el primero en usar la herramienta LDA para ese propósito y también, el primero en incluir para este análisis el informe de política monetaria. Tanto las minutas como los informes de política son herramientas fundamentales en la comunicación del BR, y el análisis del impacto de su publicación sobre el mercado es relevante para el estudio y evaluación de las estrategias de comunicación del banco central. Resultados No encontramos evidencia de que la información numérica tenga algún efecto sobre las tasas de mercado. Con respecto a la información narrativa, no hay evidencia robusta de que aquella procedente del informe de política tenga efecto sobre las tasas, mientras que sí la hay para el caso de la que está contenida en las minutas. Consideramos que estos resultados pueden explicarse por el rezago de publicación que tenía el informe de política monetaria durante el periodo analizado. Frase destacada: Tanto las minutas como los informes de política son herramientas fundamentales en la comunicación del BR, y el análisis del impacto de su publicación sobre el mercado es relevante para el estudio y evaluación de las estrategias de comunicación del banco central

¿La pandemia del Covid-19 aceleró la automatización en países en desarrollo? Evidencia para Colombia

Este documento evalúa si la pandemia del Covid-19 aceleró el proceso de automatización en países en desarrollo. El estudio se enfoca en Colombia, un país con baja inversión en Investigación y Desarrollo (I&D), baja productividad, además de una alta informalidad laboral y desempleo. Se estima un modelo de estudio de eventos para evaluar si durante la pandemia se presentó un efecto diferencial en la demanda laboral de acuerdo al grado potencial de automatización de las ocupaciones. Nuestros resultados sugieren que, durante la pandemia, tanto las vacantes como el nivel de empleo asalariado cayeron más en ocupaciones con alto potencial de automatización y, desde entonces, han presentado una recuperación mucho más lenta. Este efecto se ha observado principalmente en los sectores que se vieron afectados por las restricciones de movilidad. Igualmente encontramos efectos heterogéneos por edad y género, donde el mercado laboral de las mujeres y los individuos mayores de 40 años han sido los más afectados. Finalmente, exploramos el efecto diferencial en las ocupaciones con salarios alrededor del salario mínimo; los resultados indican que las ocupaciones con salarios más cerca al salario mínimo son las más afectadas, especialmente al inicio de la pandemia.This paper assesses whether the Covid-19 pandemic accelerated automation in developing countries. We studied the case of Colombia, a country with low R&D and productivity and with high labor informality and unemployment. We estimated event-study models to assess the differential effect of the pandemic on job openings and salaried employment by the potential degree of automation of each occupation. Our results suggest that both vacancies and salaried employment fell more in highly automatable occupations during the pandemic and have since experienced a slower recovery. The effect of the pandemic on automation is mostly driven by sectors that were affected by mobility restrictions. We also found heterogeneous effects by age and gender. The acceleration of automation is mainly affecting the labor market for females and individuals over the age of 40. Finally, we explored the differential effect on occupations with wages around the minimum wage. We found that occupations with wages close to the minimum wage exhibit the highest effect, especially at the onset of the pandemic.Enfoque Evidencias recientes sugieren que la pandemia, y en particular la crisis de Covid-19, tendieron a acelerar el proceso de automatización en economías desarrolladas como es el caso de Estados Unidos y Reino Unido. Sin embargo, pocos estudios se han enfocado en las economías en desarrollo. En este documento se evalúa si la pandemia aceleró el proceso de automatización en Colombia, un país en desarrollo, caracterizado por la combinación de baja inversión en investigación & desarrollo (I&D), y productividad, además de altos niveles de informalidad y desempleo. Contribución Este documento contribuye a la literatura sobre el impacto que pudo tener la pandemia sobre la demanda laboral en oficios con alto potencial de automatización, ofreciendo evidencia de un país de ingreso medio como Colombia con altos niveles de informalidad y desempleo. La demanda por nuevos puestos trabajos durante la pandemia se mide usando las vacantes por ocupaciones obtenidas a través del Servicio Público de Empleo (SPE) de Colombia. Adicionalmente se utiliza el nivel de empleo asalariado, basado en la Gran Encuesta Integrado de Hogares (GEIH). La probabilidad de automatización por ocupaciones se mide utilizando la metodología de Frey y Osborne (2017) y Nedelkoska y Quintini (2018) adaptada al caso colombiano. Finalmente se usa un enfoque de estudio de eventos para evaluar el efecto diferencial de la pandemia en las vacantes del SPE y el empleo asalariado, dependiendo de su potencial de automatización. Resultados Los resultados indican que durante la pandemia del Covid-19 las vacantes cayeron más significativamente en ocupaciones con alto potencial de automatización. Estos efectos son persistentes, con coeficientes significativos hasta el último periodo analizado (agosto del 2021). Igualmente, estos efectos negativos y significativos se encuentran en el nivel de empleo, particularmente en el empleo asalariado. Además, se explora en qué medida el impacto en las ocupaciones automatizables fue mayor en sectores que fueron más afectados por las restricciones de movilidad durante la pandemia del Covid-19. Los resultados indican que la mayor parte de estos efectos se presentaron en los sectores más afectados. Por lo tanto, esto sugiere que las restricciones de movilidad incrementaron el costo del trabajo relativo al capital, incentivando la automatización durante la pandemia. Estos resultados son robustos incluso cuando se controla por tendencias sectoriales o cuando se usan medidas alternativas del potencial de automatización (Chernoff and Warman, 2020). Adicionalmente, se encuentra un efecto diferencial en el empleo, de acuerdo con ciertas características demográficas como la edad, el género y la productividad de los trabajadores (en el último caso, utilizando como proxy el salario mínimo)

Description of the Minutes and Monetary Policy Reports using Computational Linguistics tools

Con base en el uso de Latent Dirichlet Allocation, una herramienta de lingüística computacional cuya finalidad es develar los patrones temáticos subyacentes que agrupan las palabras de un conjunto de textos, analizamos dos tipos esenciales de documentos en la comunicación del Banco de la República, las minutas y los informes de política monetaria, para el periodo comprendido entre marzo de 2007 y diciembre de 2018. Encontramos que estos dos tipos de documentos giran primordialmente en torno a ocho temas, siendo el más importante (en promedio a través del tiempo) el que contiene términos principalmente relacionados con demanda interna y sectores económicos. Describimos tanto las similitudes como las diferencias que se observan, entre las minutas y los informes, en la participación de cada tema dentro de los documentos y en la evolución de esa participación en el tiempo.Based on the use of Latent Dirichlet Allocation, a computational linguistics tool whose purpose is to identify the underlying thematic patterns that group the words of a set of documents, we analyse two essential outlets in the Banco de la Republica’s communication, the minutes and monetary policy reports, from March 2007 to December 2018. We find that these two outlets discuss primarily about eight topics, the most important (on average, over time) being the one that contains expressions mainly related to domestic demand and economic sectors. We describe both similarities and differences that are observed, between the minutes and the reports, in the participation of each topic within the documents and in the evolution of that participation over time.Enfoque El documento hace un análisis descriptivo de la información textual/narrativa que entrega el Banco de la República de Colombia a través de dos tipos de documentos muy importantes en la estrategia de comunicación: las Minutas de las reuniones de política monetaria y los Informes de Política Monetaria. Usando Latent Dirichlet Allocation, una herramienta de análisis de texto, se identifican los principales temas tratados en estos dos tipos de documentos, su importancia y los cambios de la misma para cada tema a través del tiempo. Contribución En la economía ha sido común hacer análisis de variables cuantitativas, sin embargo, mucha información se entrega también de forma textual. La aplicación de herramientas de lingüística computacional permite ampliar las posibilidades de recolección y análisis de datos e incluir información de tipo narrativo más allá de la capacidad de lectura y procesamiento de información textual de un ser humano. El presente trabajo contribuye a la ampliación del análisis descriptivo de la comunicación del Banco de la República a través del uso de herramientas de lingüística computacional. Adicionalmente, los resultados pueden ser usados por investigaciones futuras para análisis de impacto, efectividad y otros relacionados con la comunicación de la política monetaria en Colombia. FRASE DESTACADA: El trabajo encuentra que las Minutas y los Informes de Política Monetaria discuten principalmente alrededor de ocho temas: política monetaria, demanda interna, balanza comercial, expectativas de inflación, inflación de alimentos, crédito, sector externo, y proyecciones macroeconómicas. Resultados El trabajo encuentra que las Minutas y los Informes de Política Monetaria discuten principalmente alrededor de ocho temas principales. Con base en las palabras más significativas para cada uno de esos temas, se concluye que estos están relacionados con: política monetaria, demanda interna, balanza comercial, expectativas de inflación, inflación de alimentos, crédito, sector externo, y proyecciones macroeconómicas. El tema relacionado con la demanda interna resulta ser el más importante (el que más participación tiene) a través del tiempo, tanto en las Minutas como en los Informes. La participación de los temas varía en el tiempo y hay diferencias significativas de esas participaciones entre los dos tipos de documentos. En particular, para el periodo analizado (2007-2018), las Minutas parecen tener un contenido más prospectivo

Migración y política monetaria: Un análisis para una economía pequeña y abierta

En este artículo analizamos la respuesta de política monetaria ante un choque migratorio, mediante el desarrollo de modelo de economía pequeña y abierta con mercados de trabajo fragmentados. Los migrantes se caracterizan por sus bajos niveles de productividad, restricciones de acumulación de capital y la mayor flexibilidad de su ingreso laboral. Los resultados evidencian que la respuesta de política monetaria depende de las características de los migrantes y del mercado laboral. Una entrada de trabajadores de baja(alta) productividad reduce(aumenta) los costos marginales, disminuye(incrementa) las expectativas de inflación y lleva al Banco Central a reducir(aumentar) la tasa de interés. El modelo se calibra para la economía colombiana y se usa para analizar un influjo migratorio de trabajadores venezolanos en un sector de salarios bajos y flexibles.We develop a small open economy model with nominal rigidities and fragmented labor markets to study the response of the monetary policy to a migration shock. Migrants are characterized by their productivity levels, their restrictions to accumulate capital, as well as by the flexibility of their labor income. Our results show that the monetary policy response depends on the characteristics of migrants and the local labor market. An inflow of low(high)-productivity workers reduces(increases) marginal costs, lowers(raises) inflation expectations and pushes the Central Bank to reduce(increase) the interest rate. The model is calibrated to the Colombian economy and used to analyze a migratory inflow of financially constraint workers from Venezuela into a sector with flexible and low wages.Migración y política monetaria: Un análisis para una economía pequeña y abierta Enfoque En este artículo desarrollamos un modelo cuantitativo para entender los efectos de un choque migratorio sobre los principales agregados macroeconómicos y sus posibles efectos en la política monetaria de una economía pequeña y abierta. El modelo cuenta con dos tipos de trabajadores que se diferencian por sus niveles de productividad, sus capacidades de ahorro y endeudamiento, y la flexibilidad de sus salarios. Contribución La principal contribución del documento es brindar una herramienta cuantitativa para analizar los posibles efectos de un choque migratorio sobre las decisiones de política monetaria en una economía pequeña y abierta. Para ello, el análisis se enfoca en los efectos de la migración sobre la inflación y las desviaciones de la producción respecto a un nivel de equilibrio (con perfecto ajuste de precios). Resultados Los resultados evidencian que la respuesta de política monetaria depende de las características de los migrantes y del mercado laboral. Una entrada de trabajadores de baja (alta) productividad reduce (aumenta) los costos de producción, disminuye (incrementa) las expectativas de inflación y lleva al Banco Central a reducir (aumentar) la tasa de interés. Al considerar los datos de la reciente migración desde Venezuela y ajustar el modelo a la estructura de la economía colombiana, se encuentra que un incremento del 10% en la población informal tiene un efecto moderado sobre la respuesta de política monetaria (reducción de alrededor de 35 puntos básicos). Frase destacada: Una entrada de trabajadores de baja (alta) productividad reduce (aumenta) los costos de producción, disminuye (incrementa) las expectativas de inflación y lleva al Banco Central a reducir (aumentar) la tasa de interés

Informe de gestión 2017-2020

Este documento reseña la gestión del Banco de la República entre 2017 y 2020, un período durante el cual el Banco logró consolidar una inflación baja y estable, con tasas de crecimiento cada vez más cercanas al potencial. A partir de marzo de 2020 se adoptaron políticas novedosas que lograron evitar una crisis profunda en medio de la pandemia del Coronavirus, un choque de enormes dimensiones para la humanidad. De otra parte, se tomaron medidas importantes tendientes a fortalecer la Administración del Banco, con un mayor control de los recursos financieros destinados a los distintos objetivos del Plan de Desarrollo. El Banco continúa siendo la institución estatal independiente que genera mayor confianza entre los colombianos por su transparencia, su ajuste a exigentes metas de resultados macroeconómicos y empresariales, y por el cumplimiento efectivo de las funciones de banca central y culturales encomendadas por la Constitución y la ley. RESUMEN EJECUTIVO La economía colombiana enfrentó en los últimos cuatro años algunos de los eventos que mayor impacto han tenido sobre su desempeño en más de un siglo. El precio internacional del petróleo cayó a menos de la tercera parte entre junio de 2014 y enero de 2016 y, nuevamente, entre septiembre de 2018 y abril de 2020; se presentaron frecuentes choques en el precio local de los alimentos, y la pandemia reciente ocasionó uno de los mayores desastres que ha padecido la humanidad en su historia. El Banco de la República (Banrep), sus directivos y empleados tuvieron que responder rápidamente a las nuevas circunstancias, un proceso que ha implicado grandes cambios en la forma como se han ejecutado y cumplido las funciones de la banca central y las del área cultural a cargo de la organización. De otra parte, el Plan Estratégico 2017-2021 sentó las bases para el nuevo programa de modernización del Banco, y en el presente Informe de gestión 2017-2020 se describen y analizan los retos enfrentados en el período y la forma en que se adaptó y modernizó la institución para hacerles frente. También se mencionan los principales desafíos que se avizoran hacia el futuro, con el fin de contribuir al diseño de los planes de la administración entrante. En este Resumen ejecutivo se presenta una síntesis del documento completo. En la sección II se hace un recuento de la situación económica de Colombia y el mundo en el cuatrienio reciente, y las medidas de política adoptadas por la Junta Directiva del Banco de la República (JDBR) para mantener la inflación baja y estable y contribuir a la recuperación del crecimiento de la economía. En la sección III se registran los avances y logros en los temas estratégicos del Plan Estratégico 2017-2021. En particular, se mencionan la política monetaria y de estabilidad financiera, la política cambiaria, la política de pagos, y otros temas relacionados con la eficiencia y eficacia en el Plan. La sección IV está dedicada a la gestión cultural, y en la sección V se describe la evolución de los temas de apoyo táctico para el logro de los objetivos del Plan: capital humano y cultura organizacional, tecnología e infraestructura; se incluye, además, un resumen de los avances en materia ambiental. En la sección VI se presentan los principales elementos de la respuesta del Banco ante la emergencia sanitaria del COVID-19. En la sección VII se describe el manejo de las reservas internacionales y se analizan el presupuesto y las utilidades del Banco. En la sección VIII se enuncian algunos desafíos futuros

Monetary Policy Report - January 2021

Macroeconomic Summary Overall inflation (1.61%) and core inflation (excluding food and regulated items) (1.11%) both declined beyond the technical staff’s expectations in the fourth quarter of 2020. Year-end 2021 forecasts for both indicators were revised downward to 2.3% and 2.1%, respectively. Market inflation expectations also fell over this period and suggested inflation below the 3% target through the end of this year, rising to the target in 2022. Downward pressure on inflation was more significant in the fourth quarter than previously projected, indicating weak demand. Annual deceleration among the main groups of the consumer price index (CPI) was generalized and, except for foods, was greater than projected in the October report. The CPI for goods (excluding foods and regulated items) and the CPI for regulated items were subject to the largest decelerations and forecasting discrepancies. In the first case, this was due in part to a greater-than-expected effect on prices from the government’s “VAT-fee day” amid weak demand, and from the extension of some price relief measures. For regulated items, the deceleration was caused in part by unanticipated declines in some utility prices. Annual change in the CPI for services continued to decline as a result of the performance of those services that were not subject to price relief measures, in particular. Although some of the overall decline in inflation is expected to be temporary and reverse course in the second quarter of 2021, various sources of downward pressure on inflation have become more acute and will likely remain into next year. These include ample excesses in capacity, as suggested by the continued and greater-than-expected deceleration in core inflation indicators and in the CPI for services excluding price relief measures. This dynamic is also suggested by the minimal transmission of accumulated depreciation of the peso on domestic prices. Although excess capacity should fall in 2021, the decline will likely be slower than projected in the October report amid additional restrictions on mobility due to a recent acceleration of growth in COVID-19 cases. An additional factor is that low inflation registered at the end of 2020 will likely be reflected in low price adjustments on certain indexed services with significant weight in the CPI, including real estate rentals and some utilities. These factors should keep inflation below the target and lower than estimates from the previous report on the forecast horizon. Inflation is expected to continue to decline to levels near 1% in March, later increasing to 2.3% at the end of 2021 and 2.7% at year-end 2022 (Graph 1.1). According to the Bank’s most recent survey, market analysts expect inflation of 2.7% and 3.1% in December 2021 and 2022, respectively. Expected inflation derived from government bonds was 2% for year-end 2021, while expected inflation based on bonds one year forward from that date (FBEI 1-1 2022) was 3.2%.Box I. Macroeconomic Expectations: Analysis of the Monthly Survey of Economic Analyst Expectations. Authors: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales, César Anzola, Jonathan Muño

Monetary Policy Report - April de 2021

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.Box 1. The Transmission of Changes in the Monetary Policy Interest Rate (MPR) to Credit Institutions’ Interest Rates (CI). Authors: Isleny Carranza Amortegui, Deicy Cristiano Botia, Eliana González Molano, Carlos Huertas CamposBox 2. Analysis of Macroeconomic Expectations implicit in Financial Market Instruments. Authors: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Jonathan Muño

Monetary Policy Report - July de 2021

Macroeconomic summary The Colombian economy sustained numerous shocks in the second quarter, pri¬marily related to costs and supply. The majority of these shocks were unantic¬ipated or proved more persistent than expected, interrupting the recovery in economic activity observed at the beginning of the year and pushing overall inflation above the target. Core inflation (excluding food and regulated items) increased but remained low, in line with the technical staff’s expectations. A third wave of the pandemic, which became more severe and prolonged than the previous outbreak, began in early April. This had both a high cost in terms of human life and a negative impact on Colombia's economic recovery. Between May and mid-June roadblocks and other disruptions to public order had a sig¬nificant negative effect on economic activity and inflation. The combination and magnitude of these two shocks likely led to a decline in gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the first quarter. Roadblocks also led to a significant in¬crease in food prices. The accumulated effects of global disruptions to certain value chains and increased international freight transportation prices, which since the end of 2020 have restricted supply and increased costs, also affected Colombia’s economy. The factors described above, which primarily affected the consumer price index (CPI) for goods and foods, explain to a significant degree the technical staff’s forecast errors and the increase in overall inflation above the 3% target. By contrast, increases in core inflation and in prices for regulated items were in line with the technical staff’s expectations, and can be explained largely by the elimination of various price relief measures put in place last year. An increase in perceived sovereign risk and the upward pressures that this im¬plies on international financing costs and the exchange rate were further con¬siderations. Despite significant negative shocks, economic growth in the first half of the year (9.1%) is now expected to be significantly higher than projected in the April re¬port (7.1%), a sign of a more dynamic economy that could recover more quickly than previously forecast. Diverse economic activity figures have indicated high¬er-than-expected growth since the end of 2020. This suggests that the negative effects on output from recurring waves of COVID-19 have grown weaker and less long-lasting with subsequent outbreaks. Nevertheless, the third wave of the coro¬navirus, and to an even greater degree the previously mentioned roadblocks and disruptions to public order, likely led to a decline in GDP in the second quar¬ter compared to the first. Despite this, data from the monthly economic tracking indicator (ISE) for April and May surpassed expectations, and new sector-level measures of economic activity suggest that the negative impact of the pandemic on output continues to moderate, amid reduced restrictions on mobility and im¬provements in the pace of vaccination programs. Freight transportation registers (June) and unregulated energy demand (July), among other indicators, suggest a significant recovery following the roadblocks in May. Given the above, annual GDP growth in the second quarter is expected to have been around 17.3% (previously 15.8%), explained in large part by a low basis of comparison. The technical staff revised its growth projection for 2021 upward from 6% to 7.5%. This forecast, which comes with an unusually high degree of uncertain¬ty, assumes no additional disruptions to public order and that any new waves of COVID-19 will not have significant additional negative effects on economic activity. Recovery in international demand, price levels for some of Colombia’s export com¬modities, and remittances from workers abroad have all performed better than projected in the previous report. This dynamic is expected to continue to drive recovery in the national income over the rest of the year. Continued ample international liquidity, an acceleration in vacci¬nation programs, and low interest rates can also be ex¬pected to favor economic activity. Improved performance in the second quarter, which led to an upward growth revision for all components of spending, is expected to continue, with the economy returning to 2019 production levels at the end of 2021, earlier than estimated in the April report. This forecast continues to account for the short-term effects on aggregate demand of a tax reform package along the lines of what is currently being pro-posed by the national government. Given the above, the central forecast scenario in this report projects growth in 2021 of 7.5% and in 2022 of 3.1% (Graph 1.1). In this scenar¬io, economic activity would nonetheless remain below potential. The noted improvement in these projections comes with a high degree of uncertainty. Annual inflation increased more than expected in June (3.63%) as a result of changes in food prices, while growth in core inflation (1.87%) was similar to projections. The in¬creased CPI for foods would be expected to persist for the remainder of the year, contributing to inflation remaining above the target. Overall and core inflation would be ex¬pected to return to close to 3% at the end of 2022, amid a deceleration in growth in the CPI for foods and reduced ex¬cess productive capacity. Recent increases in international freight and agricultural goods prices, as well as the live¬stock cycle and increased meat exports, have exerted up¬ward pressure on food prices, primarily in processed foods (see Box 21). In addition to these persistent factors affecting prices, national roadblocks and related disruptions to pub¬lic order in several cities throughout May and parts of June were reflected in a significant restriction of supply and an unexpected annual increase in the CPI for foods (8.52%). Inflation in regulated items (5.93%) also accelerated, due to a low basis of comparison on gasoline prices and the par¬tial lapse of relief measures on utility rates that were put in place in 2020. Inflation excluding food and regulated items recovered in line with projections to 1.87%, due to the rein¬statement of indirect taxes on certain goods and services that had been temporarily eliminated in 2020, and to up¬ward pressures exerted by prices for foods away from home (FAH), among other factors. The increase in perishable foods prices is expected to be reversed over the course of the year, assuming an absence of additional, long-lasting blockades of national roads. Increased processed food pric¬es would be expected to persist and contribute to keeping inflation above the target at the end of the year. Inflation excluding foods and regulated items is expected to contin¬ue to exhibit an upward trend, as excesses in productive ca¬pacity continue to close, and register a temporary increase in March 2022 largely due to the reinstatement of the FAH consumption tax. Given the above, overall year-end infla¬tion is expected to be 4.1% in 2021 and 3.1% in 2022 (Graph 1.2), and core inflation is expected to be 2.6% in 2021 and 3.2% in 2022 (Graph 1.3). The technical staff has interpreted the overall behavior of prices in the CPI excluding food and regulated items, alongside continued unexpected increases in economic activity, as signs of more ample excess productive capaci¬ty in the economy. This would be expected to persist over the next two years, with the output gap closing at the end of that period. Increased economic growth suggests a less negative output gap than estimated last quarter. Nevertheless, the behavior of core inflation, especially in services, suggests that potential GDP has recovered to an unanticipated degree and that ample excess capacity con¬tinues, with a persistent effect on aggregate demand. La¬bor market observation supports this interpretation, with persistent high levels of unemployment and stagnation in the recovery of jobs lost as a result of the pandemic. Increased inflation can be explained largely by shocks re¬lated to costs and supply, and by the dissolution of some price relief measures put in place in 2020. The growth and inflation forecasts described above would be consistent with a less negative output gap closing more quickly across the forecast horizon compared to the projection from the April report. Nevertheless, uncertainty surrounding excess capacity is very high and constitutes a risk to the forecast (Graphic 1.4). The fiscal accounts outlook deteriorated, Standard and Poor’s Global Ratings (S&P) and Fitch Ratings (Fitch) down¬graded Colombia’s credit rating, roadblocks and disrup¬tions to public order affected output, and the country faced a third wave of COVID-19 that was more severe and prolonged than the previous outbreak. These factors were reflected in an increased risk premium and depreciation of the peso compared to the dollar. This occurred in a favor¬able context in regard to foreign income, as international prices for oil, coffee, and other Colombian export goods in¬creased. This contributed to a recovery in the terms of trade and in the national income and mitigated upward pres¬sures on the risk premium and the exchange rate. Expected oil prices in this report are USD 68 per barrel (previous¬ly USD 61/bl) for 2021 and USD 66/bl (previously USD 60/ bl) for 2022. This increased trajectory shows convergence to oil prices below recently observed levels, as a result of increased global supply that would more than offset increased demand. As a result, the recent price increase is expected to be temporary. International financial conditions are expected to become somewhat less fa¬vorable in the current macroeconomic context, despite the improvement in foreign income due to increased demand and some higher prices for oil and other export products. Growth in foreign demand was better than expected in the previous report, with projections for 2021 and 2022 increasing from 5.2% to 6.0% and from 3.4% to 3.5%, respectively. For the year to date, figures for economic activity suggest more dynamic foreign demand than previously expected. Output recovery has been faster in the United States and China than in Latin America, as economic reactivation in the latter has been limit¬ed by outbreaks of COVID-19, restricted vaccine supplies, and a lack of fiscal space to confront the pandemic, among other factors. The positive dynamic in foreign goods trade has come amid a deterioration in value chains and a significant increase in commodities and freight prices (see Box 3). Inflation in the United States has been unexpectedly high, with observed and expected values remaining above the target, while growth forecasts have been revised upward. As a result, the beginning of a normalization in monetary policy in the U.S. could come earlier than previously projected. This report estimates that the U.S. Federal Reserve’s first rate increase will come at the end of 2022 (before the first quarter of 2023). Colombia’s risk premium is projected to be higher than forecast in the April report, and is expected to remain on a growth trajectory given the country’s accumulation of public and external debt. This would be expected to contribute to an increase in international financing costs on the forecast horizon. An expansionary monetary policy stance continues to support favorable do¬mestic financing conditions. The interbank rate and the reference banking indi¬cator (IBR)remained consistent with the policy interest rate in the second quar¬ter. Average deposit and credit rates continued at historical lows, despite some observed increases at the end of June. The peso-denominated credit portfolio continued to decelerate in annual terms and, between March and June, growth in the household credit portfolio accelerated, primarily related to housing pur¬chases. Disbursements and recovery in the commercial credit portfolio were significant, returning to high levels observed one year ago, when businesses required significant levels of liquidity to confront the economic effects of the pandemic. Meanwhile, credit risk increased, liability provisions remained high, and some banks withdrew from the balance of their past-due portfolios. Nev¬ertheless, financial system earnings have recovered, and liquidity and solvency levels remain above regulatory minimums. Beginning with this report, a new methodology will be used to quantify and communicate the uncertainty surrounding central macroeconomic fore¬casts in the context of an active monetary policy. The new methodology, known as predictive densities (PD), will be explained in detail in Box 1. PD methodology provides probability distributions of the main forecast vari¬ables (e.g. growth, inflation) based on the balance of risks of key factors that, in the technical staff’s judgment, could affect the economy on the forecast horizon. These distributions reflect the result of possible shocks (to external variables, prices, and economic activity) that the economy could sustain and the transmission effects considering Colombia’s economic structure and anticipated monetary policy responses. As a result, PD allows for the quantification of uncertainty around the central forecast and of its bias. In this report, the PD exercise shows a downward bias for both economic growth and output gap, while the op¬posite is shown for headline inflation (Graphs 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). The balance of risks indicates more complex mone¬tary policy dilemmas than previously expected. The most significant anticipated risk regarding external financing would be a return to less favorable conditions in a sce¬nario in which the U.S. Federal Reserve promptly raises interest rates. Such a decision could come as the result of current levels of economic growth and higher-than-ex¬pected employment generating significant inflationary pressures on that country. Uncertainty regarding Colom¬bia’s fiscal outlook and the subsequent effects on the risk premium and external financing costs represent addi¬tional considerations. The risks to economic growth are mainly downside risks, relating especially to the effects of political and fiscal uncertainty on consumption and investment decisions and the potential for additional waves of COVID-19 and the subsequent effects on eco-nomic activity. Inflation risks take into account the po¬tential for more persistent shocks associated with dis¬ruption to value chains, higher international commodity and food prices, and a slower-than-expected recovery in the national agricultural chain as a result of the recent roadblocks. These would represent upward risks primarily to food and goods prices. The main downside risk to the inflation forecast would come from an increase in rental housing prices below the central scenario projection. This would be explained by weak demand and increased sup¬ply in 2022 as a result of high observed housing sales this year. All told, the PD exercise reveals a downward bias for economic growth forecast, with 90% probability of growth between 6.1% and 9.1% for 2021 and between 0.5% and 4.1% in 2022. The output gap also exhibits a downward bias to the central forecast scenario, primarily in 2022. On the contrary, an upward bias is expected for headline inflation forecast, with 90% probability ranging between 3.7% and 4.9% in 2021 and between 2.2% and 4.7% in 2022. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in June and July the BDBR left the bench¬mark interest rate unchanged at 1.75% (Graph 1.5).Box 1. Characterizing and Communicating the Balance of Risks of Macroeconomic Forecasts: A Predictive Densities Approach for Colombia Authors: Juan Camilo Méndez-Vizcaíno, César Ánzola-Bravo, Alexander Guarín y Anderson Grajales-OlarteBox 2. Analysis of Recent Disturbances in Global Logistics Chains and their Impact on Colombian Import Markets. Authors: Aarón Garavito, Juan Diego Cortés, Stefany Andrea Moreno, Alex Fernando Pérez y Juan Esteban CarranzaBox 3. The Upward Dynamics of Food Prices. Authors: Edgar Caicedo G., Andrea Salazar D. y Jesús Daniel Sarmiento S

Informe de Política Monetaria - Octubre 2020

Recent data suggest that the technical staff’s appraisals of the condition and development of economic activity, inflation and the labor market have been in line with current trends, marked by a decline in demand and the persistence of ample excess productive capacity. A significant projected fall in output materialized in the second quarter, contributing to a decline in inflation below the 3% target and reflected in a significant deterioration of the labor market. A slow recovery in output and employment is expected to continue for the remainder of 2020 and into next year, alongside growing inflation that should remain below the target. The Colombian economy is likely to undergo a significant recession in 2020 (GDP contraction of 7.6%), though this may be less severe than projected in the previous report (-8.5%). Output is expected to have begun a slow recovery in the second half of this year, though it is not projected to return to pre-pandemic levels in 2021 amid significant global uncertainty. The output decline in the first half of 2020 was less severe than anticipated, thanks to an upward revision in first-quarter GDP and a smaller contraction in the second quarter (-15.5%) than had been projected (-16.5%). Available economic indicators suggest an annual decline in GDP in the third quarter of around 9%. No significant acceleration of COVID-19 cases that would imply a tightening of social distancing measures is presumed for the remainder of this year or in 2021. In that context, a gradual opening of the economy would be expected to continue, with supply in sectors that have been most affected by the pandemic recovering slowly as restrictions on economic activity continue to be relaxed. On the spending side, an improvement in consumer confidence, suppressed demand for goods and services, low interest rates, and higher expected levels of foreign demand should contribute to a recovery in output. A low base of comparison would also help explain the expected increase in GDP in 2021. Based on the conditions laid out above, economic growth in 2020 is expected to be between -9% and -6.5%, with a central value of -7.6%. Growth in 2021 is projected to be between 3% and 7%, with a central value of 4.6% (Graph 1.1). Upward revisions compared to the July report take into account a lower-than-expected fall in first-semester growth and a somewhat faster recovery in the third quarter in some sectors. The forecast intervals for 2020 and 2021 growth tightened somewhat but continue to reflect a high degree of uncertainty over theevolution of the pandemic, the easures required to deal with it, and their effects on global and domestic economic activity.Box 1. Evaluation of the Predictive Capacity of Expected Inflation Measures. Authors: César Anzola-Bravo, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Alexander Guarín-López, Julián Camilo Mateus-Gamboa, Jonathan Alexander Muñoz-Martínez, Carlos Andrés Quicazán-Moreno, Juan Sebastián Rojas-Moreno, Cristhian Hernando Ruiz-CardozoBox 2. Literature Review: Weighing the Drivers of Portfolio Flows to Emerging Market Economies. Authors: Andrés Sánchez-Jabb